Script Language Syntax

TODO: need syntax examples for Bash and Windows Batch scripting (issue #22)

• Add syntax examples for Bash and Windows Batch scripting

• Add example output for all

Basic syntax examples for Python, PowerShell, Bash, and Windows cmd.exe batch scripting languages.

Variables

Variables in scripting languages are used to store and manipulate data dynamically. They act as placeholders for values such as numbers, text, arrays, or objects. They simplify data handling and improve code readability, making scripting more efficient for automation and processing tasks.

Key Features of Variables

• Assignment: Variables are assigned values that can be updated or referenced.

• Data Storage: They hold different types of data, including strings, numbers, and lists.

• Scope: Variables can have a global (accessible throughout the script) or local (restricted to a specific function or block) scope.

• Type Handling: Some scripting languages require explicit type declaration, while others dynamically assign types based on the assigned value.

Common Uses

• Storing user input

• Performing calculations

• Managing lists and structured data

• Controlling flow with conditional logic

Python

Basic Variable Operations

Activity	Code Examples
Declare Variable	x = 10 (Integer) name = "Alice" (String)
Assign Multiple Variables	a, b, c = 1, 2, 3
Check Variable Type	type(x)
String Formatting	f"Hello, {name}!"
List Variables	my_list = [1, 2, 3]
Dictionary Variables	my_dict = {"key": "value"}
Boolean Variables	is_active = True
Constants (Convention)	PI = 3.14159 (Uppercase naming for constants)

Python variables are dynamic, meaning their type can change based on assignment. You can find more details on Python variables here and here.

Python variable scope

Python follows the LEGB rule (Local, Enclosing, Global, Built-in) to determine variable scope.

Scope Type	Description	Code Example
Local Scope	Variables declared inside a function, accessible only within that function.	python def my_function(): x = 10 # Local variable print(x) my_function() print(x) # Error: x is not defined outside the function
Global Scope	Variables declared outside any function, accessible throughout the script.	python x = 10 # Global variable def my_function(): print(x) # Accessible inside function my_function() print(x) # Accessible outside function too
Enclosing Scope	Variables in an outer function, accessible by inner functions (nested functions).	python def outer_function(): x = 10 # Enclosing variable def inner_function(): print(x) # Accessible from outer function inner_function() outer_function()
Built-in Scope	Variables and functions built into Python, available everywhere.	python print(len([1, 2, 3])) # 'len' is a built-in function
Using global Keyword	Allows modification of a global variable inside a function.	python x = 10 def my_function(): global x x = 20 # Modifies global variable my_function() print(x) # Output: 20
Using nonlocal Keyword	Allows modification of an enclosing variable inside a nested function.	python def outer_function(): x = 10 def inner_function(): nonlocal x x = 20 # Modifies enclosing variable inner_function() print(x) # Output: 20 outer_function()

You can find more details on Python variable scopes here and here.

PowerShell

Basic Variable Operations

Activity	Code Examples
Declare Variable	$x = 10 (Integer) $name = "Alice" (String)
Assign Multiple Variables	$a, $b, $c = 1, 2, 3
Change Variable Type	$x = "Hello" (Changes x from int to str)
Check Variable Type	$x.GetType()
String Formatting	"Hello, $name!"
List Variables	Get-Variable
Dictionary Variables	$myDict = @{"key" = "value"}
Boolean Variables	$isActive = $true
Constants (Convention)	$PI = 3.14159 (Uppercase naming for constants)

Variable Scopes in PowerShell

PowerShell follows a hierarchical scope system, allowing fine control over variable accessibility.

Scope Type	Description	Code Example
Local Scope	Variables declared inside a function, accessible only within that function.	powershell function MyFunction { $x = 10 # Local variable Write-Output $x } MyFunction Write-Output $x # Error: x is not defined outside the function
Global Scope	Variables declared outside any function, accessible throughout the script.	powershell $x = 10 # Global variable function MyFunction { Write-Output $x } MyFunction Write-Output $x # Accessible outside function too
Script Scope	Variables accessible only within a script file.	powershell $script:x = 10 function MyFunction { Write-Output $script:x } MyFunction
Using global Keyword	Allows modification of a global variable inside a function.	powershell $global:x = 10 function MyFunction { $global:x = 20 } MyFunction Write-Output $global:x # Output: 20
Using private Keyword	Restricts variable access to the current scope only.	powershell private $x = 10 Write-Output $x # Works here, but not outside

You can find more details on PowerShell variable scopes here and here.

Automatic Variables

Automatic variables are predefined by PowerShell and store state information about the session. They are created and maintained by PowerShell itself. Some key examples include:

Variable	Description	Example
$?	Stores the success (True) or failure (False) of the last command.	Write-Output "Hello"; $?
$Error	Contains an array of error objects from the session.	$Error[0] (Gets the most recent error)
$PID	Stores the process ID of the current PowerShell session.	Write-Output $PID
$PSVersionTable	Displays PowerShell version details.	Write-Output $PSVersionTable
$HOME	Stores the path to the user's home directory.	Write-Output $HOME

You can find a full list of automatic variables here.

Preference Variables

Preference variables control PowerShell’s behavior and allow customization of how commands execute. Some key examples include:

Variable	Description	Default Value
$ErrorActionPreference	Controls how PowerShell handles errors (Continue, Stop, SilentlyContinue, Ignore).	Continue
$ConfirmPreference	Determines when PowerShell prompts for confirmation.	High
$VerbosePreference	Controls verbosity of output (SilentlyContinue, Continue).	SilentlyContinue
$ProgressPreference	Controls whether progress bars are displayed.	Continue
$PSModuleAutoLoadingPreference	Determines whether PowerShell automatically loads modules.	All

You can find more details on preference variables here.

Bash

Bash variables are untyped, meaning they can store any value without explicit type declaration.

Basic Variable Operations

Activity	Code Examples
Declare Variable	x=10 (Integer) name="Alice" (String)
Assign Multiple Variables	a=1; b=2; c=3
Change Variable Type	x="Hello" (Changes x from int to str)
Check Variable Type	echo $((x+0)) (Checks if x is numeric)
String Formatting	echo "Hello, $name!"
List Variables	declare -p (Lists all declared variables)
Dictionary Variables	declare -A myDict; myDict[key]="value"
Boolean Variables	isActive=true (Bash treats non-empty values as true)
Constants (Convention)	readonly PI=3.14159 (Prevents modification)

Variable Scopes in Bash

Scope Type	Description	Code Example
Local Scope	Variables declared inside a function, accessible only within that function.	bash function my_function { local x=10 # Local variable echo $x } my_function echo $x # Error: x is not defined outside the function
Global Scope	Variables declared outside any function, accessible throughout the script.	bash x=10 # Global variable function my_function { echo $x } my_function echo $x # Accessible outside function too
Using export Keyword	Allows a variable to be accessible by child processes.	bash export x=10 bash -c 'echo $x' # Output: 10

Special Variables in Bash

Variable	Description	Example
$?	Stores the exit status of the last command.	echo $?
$0	Stores the name of the script.	echo $0
$1, $2, ...	Stores positional arguments passed to the script.	echo $1 (First argument)
$#	Stores the number of arguments passed to the script.	echo $#
$@	Expands to all arguments as separate words.	echo $@
$*	Expands to all arguments as a single word.	echo $*

You can find more details on Bash variables here and here.

Environment Variables in Bash

Environment variables are global variables that affect the behavior of processes and scripts. They can be set, modified, and accessed within Bash.

Activity	Code Examples
Set Environment Variable	export MY_VAR="Hello"
Access Environment Variable	echo $MY_VAR
List All Environment Variables	printenv or env
Remove Environment Variable	unset MY_VAR
Persist Environment Variable	Add export MY_VAR="Hello" to ~/.bashrc or ~/.profile
Use in a Script	#!/bin/bash echo "The value is $MY_VAR"

Common Environment Variables

Variable	Description
$HOME	User's home directory
$PATH	Directories where executables are searched
$USER	Current username
$PWD	Current working directory
$SHELL	Default shell
$LANG	Language settings
$EDITOR	Default text editor

You can find more details on environment variables in Bash here and here.

CMD .bat

Batch scripting has limited variable handling compared to PowerShell or Python, but it remains useful for automation tasks.

Type	Code Examples
Standard Variable	set var=Hello
Global Variable	set var=Hello (variables are global by default)
Environment Variables	set USERNAME=bob (These are treated the same as normal variables in batch scripting)
Retrieving Variable Contents	echo %var%
Boolean Variables	Batch does not have native boolean types, but you can use a normal variable as a hack (e.g. set isActive=true and check with if "%isActive%"=="true" echo Active)

You can find more details on Batch scripting variables here and here.

Set Command

Variables can be initialized via the set command. The set command by itself will list all currently set variables.

Syntax

set variable-name=value

where,

• variable-name is the name of the variable you want to set.

• value is the value which needs to be set against the variable.

The following example shows a simple way the set command can be used.

Example

@echo off 
set message=Hello World 
echo %message%

Working with Numeric Values

The /A switch specifies that the string to the right of the equal sign is a numerical expression that is evaluated. The expression evaluator is pretty simple and supports the following operations, in decreasing order of precedence:

()                  - grouping
! ~ -               - unary operators
* / %               - arithmetic operators
+ -                 - arithmetic operators
<< >>               - logical shift
&                   - bitwise and
^                   - bitwise exclusive or
|                   - bitwise or
= *= /= %= += -=    - assignment
  &= ^= |= <<= >>=
,                   - expression separator

Example:

@echo off 
SET /A a = 5 
SET /A b = 10 
SET /A c = %a% + %b% 
echo %c%
:: 15

Local vs Global Variables

By default in Windows Batch scripting, variables are global to your entire command prompt session. SETLOCAL and ENDLOCAL control variable scope, allowing temporary changes to variables within a script.

Use the SETLOCAL command to make variables local to the scope of your script. After calling SETLOCAL, any variable assignments are cleared upon calling ENDLOCAL, calling EXIT, or when execution reaches the end of file (EOF) in your script.

Understanding SETLOCAL and ENDLOCAL in Batch Scripting

How SETLOCAL Works

• When SETLOCAL is used, any changes to variables inside that block remain local to the script.

• Once the script exits or reaches ENDLOCAL, the variables revert to their previous values.

• This helps prevent accidental modifications to global environment variables.

How ENDLOCAL Works

• ENDLOCAL restores the previous environment state, discarding any changes made after SETLOCAL.

• If ENDLOCAL is omitted, the local scope still ends when the script exits.

Key Takeaways

• SETLOCAL creates temporary changes that are discarded after ENDLOCAL.

• Variables declared inside SETLOCAL are not accessible outside of it.

• Modifications to global variables inside SETLOCAL are reverted after ENDLOCAL.

• This is useful for avoiding unintended changes to system environment variables.

Example

@echo off
REM Define a global variable (note: no spaces around '=')
set globalvar=5

REM Start a local scope
SETLOCAL

REM Define a local variable
set var=13145
set /A var+=5

REM Display local variable
echo Local variable: %var%

REM Display global variable (accessible inside local scope)
echo Global variable: %globalvar%

REM End local scope
ENDLOCAL

REM Calling 'var' outside this scope will result in an error
echo Trying to access local variable: %var%  (This will be empty)
echo Global variable still accessible: %globalvar%

Using SETLOCAL ENABLEDELAYEDEXPANSION in Batch Scripts

In Windows Batch scripting, variable expansion behaves differently in loops. Normally, variables are expanded before the loop starts, meaning their values may not update within the loop dynamically. To solve this issue, delayed expansion using SETLOCAL ENABLEDELAYEDEXPANSION allows real-time updates.

Why is Delayed Expansion Needed?

Without delayed expansion, a variable inside a loop does not update until after the loop completes. Using !variable! instead of %variable% allows the script to expand the variable dynamically.

---

Example Without Delayed Expansion (Incorrect Behavior)

@echo off
set count=0
for /L %%i in (1,1,5) do (
    set count=%%i
    echo Value inside loop: %count%
)

Output:

Value inside loop:
Value inside loop:
Value inside loop:
Value inside loop:
Value inside loop:

Why This Fails?

• %count% gets expanded before the loop starts, meaning it remains empty throughout execution.

---

Example With SETLOCAL ENABLEDELAYEDEXPANSION (Correct Behavior)

@echo off
SETLOCAL ENABLEDELAYEDEXPANSION
set count=0
for /L %%i in (1,1,5) do (
    set count=%%i
    echo Value inside loop: !count!
)
ENDLOCAL

Expected Output:

Value inside loop: 1
Value inside loop: 2
Value inside loop: 3
Value inside loop: 4
Value inside loop: 5

Why This Works?

• !count! is expanded during each loop iteration, reflecting the correct values.

---

Key Takeaways

• Use SETLOCAL ENABLEDELAYEDEXPANSION before loops where variables need real-time updates.

• Use !variable! instead of %variable% when accessing updated values in loops or conditional blocks.

• Avoid delayed expansion for static variables (values that don't change inside loops).

This technique is essential for scripts involving counters, user input, or dynamic updates.

Working with Environment Variables

If you have variables that you want to use across batch files, then it is always preferable to use environment variables. Once an environment variable is defined, it can be accessed via the % sign like any other variable.

Dynamic Environment Variables

If Command Extensions are enabled, then there are several dynamic environment variables that can be expanded but which don't show up in the list of variables displayed by SET. These variable values are computed dynamically each time the value of the variable is expanded. If the user explicitly defines a variable with one of these names, then that definition will override the dynamic one described below:

Environment Variable	Description
%CD%	Expands to the current directory string.
%DATE%	Expands to the current date using the same format as the DATE command.
%TIME%	Expands to the current time using the same format as the TIME command.
%RANDOM%	Expands to a random decimal number between 0 and 32767.
%ERRORLEVEL%	Expands to the current ERRORLEVEL value.
%CMDEXTVERSION%	Expands to the current Command Processor Extensions version number.
%CMDCMDLINE%	Expands to the original command line that invoked the Command Processor.
%HIGHESTNUMANODENUMBER%	Expands to the highest NUMA node number on this machine.

SET vs. SETX

When working with environment variables in Windows Batch scripting, two commonly used commands are SET and SETX. While they may seem similar, they serve different purposes and have distinct behaviors.

SET – Temporary Variable Assignment

The SET command is used to define temporary environment variables that exist only within the current command prompt session.

Example: Using SET

@echo off
set MY_VAR=Hello
echo %MY_VAR%

Output:

Hello

• Changes take effect immediately.

• Only available in the current session.

• Lost when the command prompt is closed.

---

SETX – Permanent Variable Assignment

The SETX command persists environment variables across sessions by storing them in the Windows registry.

Example: Using SETX

setx MY_VAR "Hello"

• Changes persist across command prompt sessions.

• Requires reopening the command prompt to take effect.

• Modifies user or system environment variables.

---

Key Differences Between SET and SETX

Feature	SET	SETX
Scope	Current session only	Permanent (stored in registry)
Availability	Lost when CMD closes	Available in new CMD sessions
Immediate Effect	Yes	No (requires restart of CMD)
Modifies Registry	No	Yes
System-Level Changes	No	Yes (with /m flag for system-wide variables)

---

When to Use Each Command

• Use SET for temporary variables needed only within a script or session.

• Use SETX when defining persistent environment variables that should remain available across system reboots.

For more details, check out this discussion on SET vs SETX.

Strings

Python

Method	Code Examples
Normal String	"Hello World" or 'Hello World'
Empty String	"" or ''
Multiline String	"""Hello\nWorld""" or '''Hello\nWorld'''
Select Character from String	str = "Hello" print(str[1]) Output: 'e'
Get Length	str = "Hello" print(len(str)) Output: 5
Remove Whitespace	str = " Hello World " print(str.strip()) Output: 'Hello World'
To Lowercase	str = "HELLO WORLD" print(str.lower()) Output: 'hello world'
To Uppercase	str = "hello world" print(str.upper()) Output: 'HELLO WORLD'
Replace Characters	str = "Hello" print(str.replace("H", "Y")) Output: 'Yello'
Split String	str = "Hello, World" print(str.split(",")) Output: ['Hello', ' World']
Join List into String	words = ["Hello", "World"] print(" ".join(words)) Output: 'Hello World'
String Formatting (.format())	price = 42 txt = "The price is {} dollars".format(price) print(txt) Output: 'The price is 42 dollars'
String Formatting with Index	price = 42 txt = "The price is {0} dollars".format(price) print(txt) Output: 'The price is 42 dollars'
f-Strings (Modern Formatting)	price = 42 txt = f"The price is {price} dollars" print(txt) Output: 'The price is 42 dollars'
Check If Substring Exists	str = "Hello World" print("Hello" in str) Output: True
Reverse String	str = "Hello" print(str[::-1]) Output: 'olleH'
Repeat String	print("Hello " * 3) Output: 'Hello Hello Hello '

Advanced String Manipulation in Python

Python provides powerful tools for string manipulation, including regular expressions, string slicing, and other advanced techniques for text processing.

---

Regular Expressions (re module)

Regular expressions (regex) allow pattern-based searching and manipulation of strings.

Example: Extracting Email Addresses

import re

text = "Contact us at [e-mail] or [e-mail]"
emails = re.findall(r"[a-zA-Z0-9._%+-]+@[a-zA-Z0-9.-]+\.[a-zA-Z]{2,}", text)

print(emails)  # Output: ['[e-mail]', '[e-mail]']

• Uses regex to find all email addresses in a string.

• Flexible for extracting structured data from text.

---

String Slicing

String slicing allows extracting specific parts of a string using index ranges.

Example: Extracting Substrings

text = "Python Programming"
print(text[0:6])   # Output: 'Python'
print(text[-11:])  # Output: 'Programming'
print(text[::-1])  # Output: 'gnimmargorP nohtyP' (Reversed)

• Supports positive and negative indexing.

• Allows reversing strings easily.

---

Advanced String Manipulation Techniques

Python offers additional methods for efficient text processing.

Example: Removing Unwanted Characters

text = "  Hello, World!  "
cleaned_text = text.strip()  # Removes leading/trailing spaces
print(cleaned_text)  # Output: 'Hello, World!'

Example: Replacing Words Using re.sub()

import re

text = "The price is $100."
updated_text = re.sub(r"\$\d+", "affordable", text)
print(updated_text)  # Output: 'The price is affordable.'

• Uses regex for complex replacements.

• Great for cleaning up messy text.

---

Combining Multiple String Operations

Example: Extracting and Formatting Data

import re

text = "User: John Doe, Age: 30, Email: [e-mail]"
match = re.search(r"User: (\w+ \w+), Age: (\d+), Email: (\S+)", text)

if match:
    name, age, email = match.groups()
    print(f"Name: {name}, Age: {age}, Email: {email}")

• Extracts structured data using regex.

• Formats extracted values using f-strings.

---

Want More?

You can explore more advanced string manipulation techniques here and here.

PowerShell

PowerShell provides robust string manipulation capabilities, making it easy to process and format text efficiently.

Basic String Operations

Activity	Code Examples
Declare String	$str = "Hello World"
Empty String	$empty = ""
Multiline String	$multiline = @" Hello World "@
Select Character	$str[1] Output: 'e'
Get Length	$str.Length Output: 11
Remove Whitespace	$str.Trim() Output: 'Hello World'
Convert to Lowercase	$str.ToLower() Output: 'hello world'
Convert to Uppercase	$str.ToUpper() Output: 'HELLO WORLD'
Replace Characters	$str.Replace("Hello", "Hi") Output: 'Hi World'
Split String	$str -split " " Output: @("Hello", "World")
Join Strings	-join @("Hello", "World") Output: 'HelloWorld'
Formatting	"The price is {0} dollars" -f 42 Output: 'The price is 42 dollars'
f-String Equivalent	"$($str) is great" Output: 'Hello World is great'

---

Advanced String Manipulation

Activity	Code Examples
Check If Substring Exists	$str -match "Hello" Output: $true
Reverse String	`-join ($str.ToCharArray()
Repeat String	"$str " * 3 Output: 'Hello World Hello World Hello World '
Extract Substring	$str.Substring(0, 5) Output: 'Hello'
Find Index of Character	$str.IndexOf("W") Output: 6
Remove Specific Characters	$str -replace "o", "" Output: 'Hell Wrld'

---

Regular Expressions (-match, -replace)

Activity	Code Examples
Find Pattern	$str -match "Hello" Output: $true
Extract Email	$text -match "(\w+@\w+\.\w+)" Output: $matches[0]
Replace Using Regex	$str -replace "Hello", "Hi" Output: 'Hi World'

You can find more details on PowerShell string operations here and here.

PowerShell String Parsing, Special Characters, and JSON/XML Handling

PowerShell provides robust tools for string parsing, handling special characters, and working with JSON/XML data.

---

String Parsing in PowerShell

String parsing allows extracting and manipulating text efficiently.

Example: Extracting Substrings

$text = "PowerShell is powerful"
$substring = $text.Substring(0, 10)
Write-Output $substring  # Output: 'PowerShell'

• Extracts a portion of a string using .Substring()

• Useful for processing structured text

Example: Splitting a String

$text = "apple,banana,grape"
$words = $text -split ","
Write-Output $words  # Output: 'apple', 'banana', 'grape'

• Splits a string into an array using -split

• Great for handling CSV-style data

---

Handling Special Characters

PowerShell requires escaping certain characters when working with strings.

Example: Escaping Special Characters

$text = "This is a `"$quoted text`""
Write-Output $text  # Output: 'This is a "quoted text"'

• Uses backticks (`) to escape double quotes

• Prevents syntax errors when handling special characters

Example: Removing Special Characters

$text = "Hello!@#World"
$cleaned = $text -replace "[^a-zA-Z0-9]", ""
Write-Output $cleaned  # Output: 'HelloWorld'

• Uses regex (-replace) to remove non-alphanumeric characters

• Useful for sanitizing user input

---

Working with JSON in PowerShell

PowerShell can convert objects to JSON and parse JSON data.

Example: Convert Object to JSON

$data = @{ Name="Alice"; Age=30 }
$json = $data | ConvertTo-Json
Write-Output $json

• Converts a PowerShell object into a JSON string

• Useful for API interactions

Example: Parse JSON Data

$json = '{ "Name": "Alice", "Age": 30 }'
$data = $json | ConvertFrom-Json
Write-Output $data.Name  # Output: 'Alice'

• Parses JSON into a PowerShell object

• Allows easy data extraction

---

Working with XML in PowerShell

PowerShell can parse XML files and extract structured data.

Example: Load and Parse XML

[xml]$xmlData = Get-Content "data.xml"
Write-Output $xmlData.Root.ElementName

• Loads XML content into a PowerShell object

• Allows structured data access

Example: Convert Object to XML

$data = @{ Name="Alice"; Age=30 }
$xml = $data | ConvertTo-Xml
Write-Output $xml

• Converts a PowerShell object into XML format

• Useful for configuration files

---

You can explore more advanced PowerShell string manipulation techniques here and here.

Bash

Method	Code Examples
Normal String	str="Hello World"
Empty String	str=""
Multiline String	str="Hello\nWorld"
Select Character from String	echo ${str:1:1}
Get Length	echo ${#str}
Remove whitespace at front and back	`echo " Hello "
To Lowercase	echo ${str,,}
To Uppercase	echo ${str^^}
Replace	echo ${str/Hello/Hi}
Split	IFS=","; read -ra arr <<< "$str"
Join	IFS=","; echo "${arr[*]}"
Formatting	printf "Hello %s\n" "$name"
Formatting by Index	printf "Hello %s\n" "$name"
Formatting Strings	name="World"; echo "Hello $name"

Bash String Basics

name="John"
echo ${name}
echo ${name/J/j}    #=> "john" (substitution)
echo ${name:0:2}    #=> "Jo" (slicing)
echo ${name::2}     #=> "Jo" (slicing)
echo ${name::-1}    #=> "Joh" (slicing)
echo ${name:(-1)}   #=> "n" (slicing from right)
echo ${name:(-2):1} #=> "h" (slicing from right)
echo ${food:-Cake}  #=> $food or "Cake"

length=2
echo ${name:0:length}  #=> "Jo"

String quotes

Using double quotes around a string allows for variable and parameter expansion (as well as interpretation of other special bash characters such as !). Use of single quotes around a string treats everything within as a literal string.

NAME="John"
echo "Hi $NAME"  #=> Hi John
echo 'Hi $NAME'  #=> Hi $NAME

Bash Parameter Expansion

Bash parameter expansion allows efficient manipulation of variables without requiring external commands. It enables default values, substring extraction, string modifications, and indirect expansion.

• Default values ensure variables have fallback values when unset.

• Substring extraction allows slicing parts of a string.

• String modification enables prefix/suffix removal and replacements.

• Indirect expansion retrieves the value of a variable whose name is stored in another variable.

Basic Parameter Expansion

Description	Code Examples
Retrieve the value of a variable	${VAR}
Use default value if variable is unset or null	${VAR:-default}
Assign default value if variable is unset or null	${VAR:=default}
Return alternate value if variable is set	${VAR:+alternate}
Display error message if variable is unset or null	${VAR:?error message}

STR="/path/to/foo.cpp"
echo ${STR%.cpp}    # /path/to/foo
echo ${STR%.cpp}.o  # /path/to/foo.o
echo ${STR%/*}      # /path/to

echo ${STR##*.}     # cpp (extension)
echo ${STR##*/}     # foo.cpp (basepath)

echo ${STR#*/}      # path/to/foo.cpp
echo ${STR##*/}     # foo.cpp

echo ${STR/foo/bar} # /path/to/bar.cpp

Default Values in Parameter Expansion

Description	Code Examples
Use $FOO, or fallback to val if unset (or null)	${FOO:-val}
Assign val to $FOO if unset (or null)	${FOO:=val}
Return val if $FOO is set (and not null)	${FOO:+val}
Display error message and exit if $FOO is unset (or null)	${FOO:?message}

** Note**

These parameter expansion methods in Bash allow conditional substitution based on whether a variable is set or unset. The : ensures checks for both unset and null values. If omitted (e.g., ${FOO-val}), the expansion applies only when $FOO is completely unset but not when it is empty ("").

Substitution

Description	Code Examples
Remove suffix	${FOO%suffix}
Remove prefix	${FOO#prefix}
Remove long suffix	${FOO%%suffix}
Remove long prefix	${FOO##prefix}
Replace first match	${FOO/from/to}
Replace all occurrences	${FOO//from/to}
Replace suffix	${FOO/%from/to}
Replace prefix	${FOO/#from/to}

Substrings

Description	Code Examples
Substring (position, length)	${FOO:0:3}
Substring from the right	${FOO:(-3):3}

Accessing Substrings

STR="Hello world"
echo ${STR:6:5}   # "world"
echo ${STR: -5:5}  # "world"

String Modification

Description	Code Examples
Remove shortest matching prefix	${VAR#prefix}
Remove longest matching prefix	${VAR##prefix}
Remove shortest matching suffix	${VAR%suffix}
Remove longest matching suffix	${VAR%%suffix}
Replace first occurrence	${VAR/from/to}
Replace all occurrences	${VAR//from/to}

Special Directory Substring Tricks

SRC="/path/to/foo.cpp"
BASE=${SRC##*/}   #=> "foo.cpp" (basepath)
DIR=${SRC%$BASE}  #=> "/path/to/" (dirpath)

Length and Indirection

Description	Code Examples
Get length of variable	${#VAR}
Indirect expansion (expand variable name stored in another variable)	${!VAR}

Bash String Manipulation Tricks

Case Manipulation

Description	Code Example
Lowercase first letter	echo ${STR,} → "hELLO WORLD!"
Lowercase entire string	echo ${STR,,} → "hello world!"
Uppercase first letter	echo ${STR^} → "Hello world!"
Uppercase entire string	echo ${STR^^} → "HELLO WORLD!"

String Replacement

Description	Code Example
Replace first occurrence	echo ${STR/HELLO/HI} → "HI WORLD!"
Replace all occurrences	echo ${STR//O/A} → "HELLA WARLD!"
Remove prefix	echo ${STR#HELLO } → "WORLD!"
Remove suffix	echo ${STR% WORLD!} → "HELLO"

Additional Tricks

• Reverse String: echo $(rev <<< "$STR") → "!DLROW OLLEH"

• Repeat String: echo "$STR " * 3 → "HELLO WORLD! HELLO WORLD! HELLO WORLD!"

• Remove Non-Alphanumeric Characters: echo ${STR//[^a-zA-Z0-9]/} → "HELLOWORLD"

Advanced String Formatting Using printf in Bash

The printf command in Bash provides precise control over formatted output, making it more powerful than echo.

---

Basic Formatting

Description	Code Example
Print a simple string	printf "Hello, World!\n"
Print a formatted string with placeholders	printf "Name: %s, Age: %d\n" "Alice" 30
Print multiple values	printf "%s %s\n" "Hello" "World"

---

Format Specifiers

Description	Code Example
Print a string	printf "%s\n" "Hello"
Print an integer	printf "%d\n" 42
Print a floating-point number	printf "%.2f\n" 3.14159
Print a character	printf "%c\n" 65 (Outputs 'A')
Print a percentage symbol	printf "Discount: %d%%\n" 50

---

Alignment and Padding

Description	Code Example
Left-align text (width 10)	printf "%-10s\n" "Hello"
Right-align text (width 10)	printf "%10s\n" "Hello"
Pad numbers with leading zeros	printf "%05d\n" 42 (Outputs '00042')
Limit decimal places	printf "%.2f\n" 3.14159 (Outputs '3.14')

---

Formatting Lists and Tables

Description	Code Example
Print a table with aligned columns	printf "%-10s %-10s\n" "Name" "Age"; printf "%-10s %-10d\n" "Alice" 30
Print a list with numbered items	printf "%d. %s\n" 1 "Apple"; printf "%d. %s\n" 2 "Banana"

---

Using printf with Variables

name="Alice"
age=30
printf "Name: %s, Age: %d\n" "$name" "$age"

• Uses variables inside formatted output.

• Ensures proper spacing and alignment.

---

Formatting Output for Logs

timestamp=$(date +"%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S")
printf "[%s] INFO: %s\n" "$timestamp" "Process started"

• Use to add timestamps to logs dynamically.

• Useful for debugging and monitoring scripts.

You can explore more advanced printf formatting techniques here and here.

CMD .bat

Method	Code Examples
Normal String	set str=Hello World
Empty String	set str=
Multiline String	set str=Hello^&echo World
Select Character from String	echo %str:~1,1%
Get Length	echo %str:~0,-1%
Remove whitespace at front and back	for /f "tokens=*" %%A in ("%str%") do set str=%%A
To Lowercase	`echo %str%
To Uppercase	`echo %str%
Replace	set str=%str:Hello=Hi%
Split	for %%A in (%str%) do echo %%A
Join	set str=%str1% %str2%
Formatting	set str=Hello %name%
Formatting by Index	set str=Hello %name%
Formatting Strings	set name=World & echo Hello %name%

Creating and displaying the contents of a string

@echo off 
:: This program just displays Hello World 
set message = Hello World 
echo %message%

Creating and checking for empty strings

An empty string can be created in DOS Scripting by assigning it no value during it's initialization as shown in the following example.

set a=

To check for an existence of an empty string, you need to encompass the variable name in square brackets and also compare it against a value in square brackets as shown in the following example.

[%a%]==[]

Empty Strings Example

This example shows how an empty string can be created, and how to check for the existence of an empty string.

@echo off 
SET a= 
SET b=Hello 
if [%a%]==[] echo "String A is empty" 
if [%b%]==[] echo "String B is empty "

This will print String A is empty.

Type Casting

Type casting is the process of converting a variable from one data type to another. This ensures compatibility between different types in operations and functions.

Types of Type Casting

1. Implicit Casting (Automatic Conversion)

   • Happens when a smaller or less precise type is converted into a larger or more precise type.

   • No risk of data loss.

   • Example: Converting an integer to a floating-point number.

2. Explicit Casting (Manual Conversion)

   • Requires direct conversion using specific functions or operators.

   • May lead to loss of data or precision.

   • Example: Converting a floating-point number to an integer.

Common Use Cases

• Mathematical Operations: Ensuring consistency between integers and floats.

• User Input Handling: Converting input into appropriate data types.

• Data Processing: Handling different formats across APIs or databases.

Potential Risks

⚠️ Data Loss: Converting complex types to simpler ones can remove details. ⚠️ Unexpected Behavior: Incompatible conversions may lead to errors.

Type casting is essential for efficient data management in programming, ensuring smooth interactions between different types.

Python

Python's type casting allows flexible data manipulation, ensuring compatibility between different types.

Type Casting in Python

Type	Code Examples
As Integer	i = int("10") → Converts string "10" to integer 10
As Float	f = float("10.5") → Converts string "10.5" to float 10.5
As String	s = str(10) → Converts integer 10 to string "10"
As Character	c = chr(65) → Converts ASCII value 65 to character 'A'
As Boolean	b = bool(0) → Converts 0 to False, bool(1) → True
As List	lst = list("hello") → Converts string "hello" to list ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
As Tuple	tpl = tuple([1, 2, 3]) → Converts list [1, 2, 3] to tuple (1, 2, 3)
As Dictionary	d = dict([(1, "one"), (2, "two")]) → Converts list of tuples to dictionary {1: "one", 2: "two"}
As Set	s = set([1, 2, 2, 3]) → Converts list [1, 2, 2, 3] to set {1, 2, 3}

Converting Between Types

x = "42"
y = int(x)  # Converts string to integer
z = float(y)  # Converts integer to float
print(y, z)  # Output: 42 42.0

Limitations and Pitfalls of Type Conversion in Python

Type conversion in Python is useful for handling different data types, but it comes with potential pitfalls that can lead to unexpected behavior or errors.

Loss of Precision

• Converting floats to integers removes the decimal portion, potentially altering values.

• Example:

  num = int(3.9)
  print(num)  # Output: 3 (decimal truncated)

Type Errors

• Some conversions are not allowed, leading to TypeError.

• Example:

  num = int([1, 2, 3])  # Raises TypeError

Value Errors

• Converting incompatible strings to numbers results in ValueError.

• Example:

  num = int("hello")  # Raises ValueError

Unexpected Boolean Behavior

• Python treats non-empty values as True and empty values as False, which can cause logic errors.

• Example:

  print(bool("False"))  # Output: True (because it's a non-empty string)

Implicit Conversions Can Lead to Bugs

• Mixing integers and floats in operations can cause unintended type changes.

• Example:

  result = 5 + 2.5  # Implicitly converts 5 to float
  print(type(result))  # Output: <class 'float'>

Handling Type Casting Errors

try:
    num = int("hello")  # Invalid conversion
except ValueError:
    print("Cannot convert 'hello' to an integer.")

Using eval() for Dynamic Type Casting

value = "3.14"
converted = eval(value)  # Converts string `"3.14"` to float `3.14`
print(type(converted))  # Output: <class 'float'>

⚠️ Caution: eval() can execute arbitrary code, so use it carefully.

PowerShell

Basic Type Conversion

Description	Code Examples
Convert string to integer	[int]"42" → 42
Convert string to float	[double]"3.14" → 3.14
Convert integer to string	[string]42 → "42"
Convert ASCII value to character	[char]65 → 'A'
Convert boolean to integer	[int]$true → 1, [int]$false → 0

---

Collection Type Conversion

Description	Code Examples
Convert string to array	@("Hello", "World")
Convert list to hashtable	@{Key1="Value1"; Key2="Value2"}
Convert array to string	-join @("Hello", "World") becomes "HelloWorld"

---

Advanced Explicit Type Casting

Description	Code Examples
Force integer conversion	[int]"3.9" (becomes 3 i.e. truncates decimal)
Convert object to XML	[xml]$xmlString
Convert object to JSON	$object | ConvertTo-Json
Convert JSON to object	$json | ConvertFrom-Json

---

Handling Type Conversion Errors

Use try-catch blocks to handle conversion errors gracefully.

try {
    $num = [int]"hello"  # Invalid conversion
} catch {
    Write-Output "Error: Cannot convert 'hello' to an integer."
}

---

Potential Pitfalls

Similar to Python, there are a number of potential pitfalls to be aware of when comverting between different data types:

• 🚨 Loss of Precision: Converting floats to integers removes decimals.

• 🚨 Unexpected Boolean Behavior: Non-empty strings evaluate as $true.

• 🚨 Implicit Conversions: Mixing types can lead to unintended results.

PowerShell’s type conversion system is powerful but requires careful handling to avoid unexpected behavior.

You can explore more details on PowerShell type conversion here and here.

Bash

Bash scripting does not have built-in type casting like some other languages, but it provides ways to convert and manipulate data types using arithmetic operations, commands, and built-in functions. Bash’s type conversion typically relies on workarounds and external tools like bc, awk, and jq.

---

Basic Type Conversion

Description	Code Examples
Convert string to integer	num=$(( "42" )) → 42
Convert string to float (using bc)	echo "3.14" | bc → 3.14
Convert integer to string	str="$num" → "42"
Convert ASCII value to character	printf \\$(printf '%o' 65) → 'A'
Convert boolean-like values	[[ -n "$var" ]] && echo "True" || echo "False"

---

Collection Type Conversion

Description	Code Examples
Convert string to array	IFS="," read -ra arr <<< "apple,banana,grape"
Convert array to string	echo "${arr[*]}" → "apple banana grape"
Convert list to associative array	declare -A myDict; myDict[key]="value"
Convert array to JSON (using jq)	echo '{"name":"Alice","age":30}' | jq

---

Explicit Type Casting

Description	Code Examples
Force integer conversion	num=$(( "3.9" )) → 3 (truncates decimal)
Convert object to JSON (using jq)	echo '{"name":"Alice"}' | jq
Convert JSON to object (using jq)	echo '{"name":"Alice"}' | jq -r '.name'

---

Handling Type Conversion Errors

Use regex to validate integer conversions before processing.

if [[ "$var" =~ ^[0-9]+$ ]]; then
    echo "Valid integer: $var"
else
    echo "Error: Not a number"
fi

---

Potential Pitfalls

• 🚨 Loss of Precision: Bash does not support floating-point arithmetic natively.

• 🚨 Unexpected Boolean Behavior: Non-empty strings evaluate as true.

• 🚨 Implicit Conversions: Mixing types can lead to unintended results.

You can explore more details on Bash type conversion here and here.

CMD .bat

Windows Batch scripting does not have built-in type casting like higher-level languages, but it provides ways to convert and manipulate data types using arithmetic operations and string manipulation.

---

Basic Type Conversion

Description	Code Examples
Convert string to integer	set /A num="42" → 42
Convert integer to string	set str=%num% → "42"
Convert ASCII value to character	for /F %%A in ('cmd /c echo 65') do set char=%%A → 'A'
Convert boolean-like values	if "%var%"=="" (echo False) else (echo True)

---

Collection Type Conversion

Description	Code Examples
Convert comma-separated string to array	for %%A in (%list%) do echo %%A
Convert array to string	set str=%array[*]%
Convert list to dictionary-like structure	set key1=value1 & set key2=value2

---

Handling Type Conversion Errors

Uses error redirection (2>nul) to handle conversion errors gracefully.

@echo off
set var=hello
set /A num=%var% 2>nul
if "%num%"=="" echo "Error: Cannot convert '%var%' to an integer."

---

Potential Pitfalls

• 🚨 Loss of Precision: Batch does not support floating-point arithmetic natively.

• 🚨 Unexpected Boolean Behavior: Non-empty strings evaluate as true.

• 🚨 Implicit Conversions: Mixing types can lead to unintended results.

You can explore more details on Batch type conversion here and here.

Arrays

Python

Python does not have built-in support for Arrays as so termed, but Python Lists and Tuples can be used instead, and work much in the same way.

Working with Lists in Python

Activity	Code Examples
Define	arr = ['Hello', 'World']
Access Elements	arr[0] → 'Hello'
Get Length	len(arr) → 2
Add Elements	arr.append('New') → ['Hello', 'World', 'New']
Insert at Specific Position	arr.insert(1, 'there') → ['Hello', 'there', 'World']
Remove Last Element	arr.pop() → ['Hello']
Remove Specific Index	arr.pop(1) → ['Hello']
Remove Element by Value	arr.remove('Hello') → ['World']
Sort Elements	arr.sort() (Alphabetical order)
Reverse Elements	arr.reverse() → ['World', 'Hello']
Check if Element Exists	'Hello' in arr → True
Loop Through Elements	for item in arr: print(item)
Copy List	copy_arr = arr.copy()
Concatenate Lists	new_arr = arr + ['Python', 'Rocks']
Convert List to String	', '.join(arr) → 'Hello, World'
Convert String to List	arr = 'Hello World'.split() → ['Hello', 'World']

Looping Through Lists

arr = ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']
for item in arr:
    print(item)  # Outputs each fruit

Filtering Elements in a List

arr = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
filtered = [x for x in arr if x > 2]
print(filtered)  # Output: [3, 4, 5]

---

Nested Lists

Description	Code Example
Define a nested list	nested_list = [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]]
Access an element	nested_list[1][2] → 6
Loop through nested lists	for sublist in nested_list: print(sublist)
Flatten a nested list	[item for sublist in nested_list for item in sublist] → [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

Tuples

A tuple is an ordered collection of items, similar to a list, but with one key difference—tuples are immutable. This means once a tuple is created, its contents cannot be changed, added to, or removed.

---

Key Differences Between Lists and Tuples

Feature	List (list)	Tuple (tuple)
Mutability	✅ Mutable (can modify, add, remove elements)	❌ Immutable (cannot change after creation)
Syntax	Defined using [] (square brackets)	Defined using () (parentheses)
Performance	Slower due to dynamic resizing	Faster due to fixed structure
Memory Usage	Uses more memory	Uses less memory
Intended Use	Dynamic, frequently modified data	Static, unchangeable data

---

Defining a List and a Tuple

# List (Can be modified)
my_list = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
my_list.append("date")  # Adding a new element
print(my_list)  # Output: ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'date']

# Tuple (Cannot be modified)
my_tuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
# my_tuple.append("date")  # ❌ This will raise an error!
print(my_tuple)  # Output: ('apple', 'banana', 'cherry')

Nested Tuples

Description	Code Example
Define a nested tuple	nested_tuple = ((1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6))
Access an element	nested_tuple[2][1] → 6
Iterate through nested tuples	for subtuple in nested_tuple: print(subtuple)

When to Use Tuples vs. Lists

• Use a List when you need a dynamic data structure that will change during program execution.

• Use a Tuple when you need a fixed, unchangeable collection (e.g., coordinates, config settings, database records).

PowerShell

Arrays in PowerShell

Arrays are fixed-size collections used to store ordered data. They allow indexed access but cannot dynamically resize. Arrays are ideal for storing structured lists that don’t change frequently.

Activity	Code Examples
Define an Array	$arr = @('Hello', 'World')
Access Elements	$arr[0] → 'Hello'
Get Length	$arr.Length → 2
Add Elements	$arr += 'New' → @('Hello', 'World', 'New')
Remove Last Element	$arr = $arr[0..($arr.Length - 2)]
Remove Specific Index	$arr = $arr | Where-Object {$_ -ne 'World'}
Sort Elements	$arr = $arr | Sort-Object
Reverse Elements	$arr = $arr | Sort-Object -Descending
Check if Element Exists	if ('Hello' -in $arr) { Write-Output 'Exists' }
Loop Through Elements	foreach ($item in $arr) { Write-Output $item }

---

ArrayLists in PowerShell

ArrayLists are dynamically resizable collections, making them more flexible than arrays. They allow elements to be added or removed without needing to reassign the entire structure, which is useful for scripts handling dynamic data.

Activity	Code Examples
Define an ArrayList	$arrList = [System.Collections.ArrayList]@('Hello', 'World')
Add Elements	$arrList.Add('New')
Remove Elements	$arrList.Remove('Hello')
Remove by Index	$arrList.RemoveAt(1)
Sort Elements	$arrList.Sort()
Reverse Elements	$arrList.Reverse()

---

Tuples in PowerShell

Tuples store multiple values in a single object, maintaining a fixed structure. Unlike arrays or ArrayLists, tuples are immutable, meaning their values cannot be changed after creation. They are ideal for grouping related values when modification isn’t needed.

Activity	Code Examples
Define a Tuple	$tuple = [Tuple]::Create('Alice', 30, 'Engineer')
Access Elements	$tuple.Item1 → 'Alice'
Tuple with Multiple Types	$tuple = [Tuple[int, string]]::Create(42, 'Answer')

---

Choosing Between Arrays, ArrayLists, and Tuples

Feature	Arrays	ArrayLists	Tuples
Mutability	❌ Fixed size	✅ Dynamic resizing	❌ Immutable
Performance	✅ Fast	❌ Slower due to resizing	✅ Fast
Best Use Case	Static collections	Dynamic lists	Fixed structured data

Bash

Basic Array Operations in Bash

Description	Code Example
Define an Array: Creates an array with multiple values.	arr=("Hello" "World")
Access Elements: Retrieves an element by index.	echo ${arr[0]} → "Hello"
Get Array Length: Gets the number of elements in the array.	echo ${#arr[@]} → 2
Add Elements: Appends new elements to the array.	arr+=("NewElement")
Insert at Specific Index: Adds an element at a specific position.	arr=( "${arr[@]:0:1}" "Insert" "${arr[@]:1}" )
Remove Elements by Index: Deletes an element from the array.	unset arr[1]
Remove Elements by Value: Searches and removes elements matching a value.	arr=( "${arr[@]/"World"}" )
Loop Through an Array: Iterates over array elements.	for item in "${arr[@]}"; do echo "$item"; done
Check if Element Exists: Searches an array for a specific value.	[[ "Hello" == "${arr[*]}" ]] && echo "Exists"
Concatenate Arrays: Merges multiple arrays into one.	arr3=( "${arr1[@]}" "${arr2[@]}" )
Sort an Array: Sorts array elements alphabetically.	IFS=$'\n' sorted=($(sort <<<"${arr[*]}")); echo "${sorted[@]}"
Reverse an Array: Prints elements in reverse order.	for ((i=${#arr[@]}-1; i>=0; i--)); do echo "${arr[i]}"; done
Convert Array to String: Joins array elements into a single string.	echo "${arr[*]}"
Convert String to Array: Splits a string into an array.	IFS="," read -r -a arr <<< "Hello,World"

Advanced Bash Array Operations

Description	Command
Access the first element in the array.	${arr[0]}
Access the last element in the array.	${arr[-1]}
Print all elements, space-separated.	${arr[@]}
Get the total number of elements in the array.	${#arr[@]}
Get the string length of the first element.	${#arr}
Get the string length of the fourth element (index 3).	${#arr[3]}
Extract a subarray (starting at index 3, length 2).	${arr[@]:3:2}
Print all keys (indices) of the array, space-separated.	${!arr[@]}
Convert a comma-separated string into an array.	IFS="," read -r -a new_arr <<< "One,Two,Three"
Convert an array to a comma-separated string.	echo "${arr[*]}" | tr ' ' ','
Sort an array alphabetically.	sorted=($(for val in "${arr[@]}"; do echo "$val"; done | sort))
Print an array in reverse order.	for ((i=${#arr[@]}-1; i>=0; i--)); do echo "${arr[i]}"; done
Search for a pattern in the array elements.	for i in "${arr[@]}"; do echo "$i" | grep "pattern"; done
Remove elements matching "unwanted" from the array.	filtered=($(echo "${arr[@]}" | tr ' ' '\n' | grep -v "unwanted"))
Load an array from a file line by line.	mapfile -t arr < file.txt

Bash Array Manipulation

Description	Command
Push (Add an element to the array)	Numbers=("${Numbers[@]}" 99)
Also Push (Alternate way to add an element)	Numbers+=('42')
Remove by Regex Match (Removes elements matching a pattern)	Words=( ${Words[@]/Te*/} )
Remove One Item (Delete element at index 2)	unset Names[2]
Duplicate (Create a copy of the array)	Cities=("${Cities[@]}")
Concatenate (Merge two arrays)	Items=("${Fruits[@]}" "${Vegetables[@]}")
Read from File (Store lines of a file into an array)	logs=($(cat "system.log"))

Iteration

You can iterate through all of the items in an array to do some action on all them with a for loop.

for i in "${arrayName[@]}"; do
  echo $i
done

Advanced Bash Array Manipulation

Sorting an Array

Sorting an array in Bash requires using the sort command to preserve the array structure.

arr=("banana" "apple" "cherry")
IFS=$'\n' sorted=($(sort <<<"${arr[*]}"))
unset IFS
echo "${sorted[@]}"  # Output: apple banana cherry

• Uses IFS to handle spaces properly.

• Sorts elements alphabetically.

---

Filtering an Array

Filtering an array involves removing unwanted elements using grep or awk.

arr=("apple" "banana" "cherry" "grape")
filtered=($(echo "${arr[@]}" | tr ' ' '\n' | grep -v "banana"))
echo "${filtered[@]}"  # Output: apple cherry grape

• Removes "banana" from the array dynamically.

• Uses grep -v to exclude elements.

---

Multi-Dimensional Arrays in Bash

Bash does not support true multi-dimensional arrays, but associative arrays (See Dictionaries) can simulate them.

declare -A matrix
matrix[0,0]="A"
matrix[0,1]="B"
matrix[1,0]="C"
matrix[1,1]="D"

echo "${matrix[0,1]}"  # Output: B

• Uses associative arrays (declare -A) to store matrix-like data.

• Access elements using key,value pairs.

---

Reversing an Array

Print elements in reverse order dynamically.

arr=("one" "two" "three")
for ((i=${#arr[@]}-1; i>=0; i--)); do
    echo "${arr[i]}"
done

CMD .bat

Using Arrays in Batch Scripts

Batch scripting does not have built-in array support like other programming languages, but arrays can be simulated using indexed variables and loops.

Limitations of Arrays in Batch

• Each element is stored as a separate variable using indexed names (arr[0], arr[1], etc.).

• Loops are required to iterate through array elements.

• Elements must be manually managed, including adding, removing, and modifying values.

• Limited functionality compared to other scripting languages, but useful for handling lists of data.

---

Batch Script Arrays

Activity	Code Examples
Define an Array	set arr[0]=Hello
Access Elements	echo %arr[0]%
Get Length	set count=0 & for /L %%i in (0,1,9) do if defined arr[%%i] set /A count+=1 & echo %count%
Adding Elements	set arr[1]=World
Appending Elements	set arr[%count%]=NewItem (Using a counter to add dynamically)
Removing Elements	set arr[1]= (Clears the value but does not shift indices)
Remove Element by Value	for /F "tokens=*" %%i in ('set arr') do if not "%%i"=="World" echo %%i
Iterate Over Array	for /L %%i in (0,1,%count%) do echo !arr[%%i]!
Check if Element Exists	if defined arr[2] echo "Exists"
Concatenate Arrays	set arr[0]=Hello & set arr[1]=World & set arr[2]=Batch
Sort Elements	for /F "tokens=*" %%A in ('set arr') do echo %%A | sort
Reverse Elements	for /L %%i in (%count%,-1,0) do echo !arr[%%i]!
Read from File into Array	for /F "tokens=*" %%A in (data.txt) do set arr[%count%]=%%A & set /A count+=1

---

Example: Iterating Over an Array

@echo off
setlocal enabledelayedexpansion
set arr[0]=Apple
set arr[1]=Banana
set arr[2]=Cherry

for /L %%i in (0,1,2) do (
    echo !arr[%%i]!
)

• Batch arrays require manual management, but they are useful for handling lists of data in automation scripts.

• Each element of the array needs to be defined with the set command.

• A for loop is required to iterate through the values of the array.

• Use enabledelayedexpansion to handle dynamic variables.

Alternative Array Definition

Another way to implement arrays is to define a space-separated list of values.

@echo off 
set list = 1 2 3 4 
(for %%a in (%list%) do ( 
   echo %%a 
))

Accessing Array Values

You can retrieve a value from the array by using subscript syntax, passing the index of the value you want to retrieve within square brackets immediately after the name of the array.

@echo off 
set a[0]=1 
echo %a[0]%

Modifying an Array

To add an element to the end of the array, you can use the set command along with the new final index of the array element. There is no append function as in other languages.

@echo off 
set a[0] = 1  
set a[1] = 2  
set a[2] = 3 
Rem Adding an element at the end of an array 
Set a[3] = 4 
echo The last element of the array is %a[3]%

You can also modify an existing element of an Array by assigning a new value at a given index.

@echo off 
set a[0] = 1 
set a[1] = 2  
set a[2] = 3 
Rem Setting the new value for the second element of the array 
Set a[1] = 5 
echo The new value of the second element of the array is %a[1]%

Iterating Over an Array's values

Iterating over an array is achieved by using a for loop and stepping through each element of the array.

@echo off 
setlocal enabledelayedexpansion 
set category[0] = fruits 
set category[1] = vegetables 
set category[2] = dairy 
set category[3] = grains 
set category[4] = protein 

for /l %%i in (0,1,4) do ( 
   echo !category[%%i]! 
)

Notes:

• Each element of the array needs to be specifically defined using the set command.

• A for loop with the /L parameter iterates through a sequence of values, allowing traversal of the array-like list.

Length of an Array

The length of an array is found by iterating over the list of values in the array since there is no direct function to determine the number of elements in an array.

@echo off 
set Arr[0] = 1 
set Arr[1] = 2 
set Arr[2] = 3 
set Arr[3] = 4 
set "x = 0" 
:LenLoop 

if defined Arr[%x%] ( 
   call echo %%Arr[%x%]%% 
   set /a "x+=1"
   GOTO :LenLoop 
)
echo "The length of the array is" %x%

Conditionals

Python

Switch	Code Examples
If / ElseIf / Else	a = 42 b = 420 if b > a: print("b is greater than a") elif a == b: print("a and b are equal") else: print("a is greater than b")
Case

PowerShell

Switch	Code Examples
If / ElseIf / Else	$a = 42 $b = 420 if ($b -gt $a) { Write-Host "b is greater than a" } elseif ($a -eq $b) { Write-Host "a and b are equal" } else { Write-Host "a is greater than b" }
Case

Bash

Switch	Code Examples
If / ElseIf / Else	if [ "$var" = "value" ]; then echo "Match"; elif [ "$var" = "other" ]; then echo "Other"; else echo "No Match"; fi
Case	case "$var" in value) echo "Match" ;; other) echo "Other" ;; *) echo "No Match" ;; esac

Case/switch

case "$1" in
  start | up)
    vagrant up
    ;;

  *)
    echo "Usage: $0 {start|stop|ssh}"
    ;;
esac

# String
if [[ -z "$string" ]]; then
  echo "String is empty"
elif [[ -n "$string" ]]; then
  echo "String is not empty"
else
  echo "This never happens"
fi

CMD .bat

Switch	Code Examples
If / ElseIf / Else	if "%var%"=="value" (echo Match) else (echo No Match)
Case	REM Not natively supported in CMD

The first decision-making statement is the 'if' statement. The general form of this statement is as follows:

if(condition) do_something

First, a condition is evaluated in the 'if' statement. If the condition is true, it then executes the statements.

Checking Variables

One of the common uses for the 'if' statement in Batch Script is for checking variables which are set in the Batch Script itself. The evaluation of the 'if' statement can be done for both strings and numbers.

Checking Integer Variables

The following example shows how the 'if' statement can be used for numbers.

Example

@echo off 
SET /A a = 5 
SET /A b = 10 
SET /A c = %a% + %b% 
if %c%==15 echo "The value of variable c is 15" 
if %c%==10 echo "The value of variable c is 10"

The key things to note about the above script are:

• The first 'if' statement checks if the value of the variable c is 15. If so, then it echo's a string to the command prompt.

• Since the condition in the statement - if %c% == 10 echo "The value of variable **c** is 10 evaluates to false, the echo part of the statement will not be executed.

Output

The above command produces the following output.

15

Checking String Variables

The following example shows how the 'if' statement can be used for strings.

Example

@echo off 
SET str1 = String1 
SET str2 = String2 
if %str1%==String1 echo "The value of variable String1" 
if %str2%==String3 echo "The value of variable c is String3"

The key thing to note about the above program is −

• The first 'if' statement checks if the value of the variable str1 contains the string “String1”. If so, then it echo's a string to the command prompt.

• Since the condition of the second 'if' statement evaluates to false, the echo part of the statement will not be executed.

Output

The above command produces the following output.

"The value of variable String1"

Note − The evaluation in the 'if' statement is case-sensitive. The same program as above is modified a little as shown in the following example. In the first statement, we have changed the comparison criteria. Because of the different casing, the output of the following program would yield nothing.

@echo off 
SET str1 = String1 
SET str2 = String2 
if %str1%==StrinG1 echo "The value of variable String1" 
if %str2%==String3 echo "The value of variable c is String3"

Loops

Python

Loop Type	Code Examples
For	fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"] for x in fruits: print(x)
While	i = 1 while i < 6: print(i) i += 1
Break	i = 1 while i < 6: print(i) if i == 3: break i += 1
Continue	i = 1 while i < 6: print(i) if i == 3: continue i += 1

PowerShell

Loop Type	Code Examples
For	$fruits = @("apple", "banana", "cherry") foreach($x in $fruits) { Write-Host $x }
While	$i = 1 while ($i -lt 6) { Write-Host $i $i++ }
Break	$i = 1 while ($i -lt 6) { Write-Host $i if ($i -eq 3) { break } $i++ }
Continue	$i = 1 while ($i -lt 6) { Write-Host $i if ($i -eq 3) { continue } $i++ }

Bash

Loop Type	Code Examples
For	for i in 1 2 3; do echo $i; done
While	while [ "$var" != "stop" ]; do echo $var; done
Break	for i in 1 2 3; do [ "$i" = "2" ] && break; echo $i; done
Continue	for i in 1 2 3; do [ "$i" = "2" ] && continue; echo $i; done

Basic for loop

for i in /etc/rc.*; do
  echo $i
done

C-like for loop

for ((i = 0 ; i < 100 ; i++)); do
  echo $i
done

Ranges

for i in {1..5}; do
    echo "Welcome $i"
done

With step size

for i in {5..50..5}; do
    echo "Welcome $i"
done

Reading lines

cat file.txt | while read line; do
  echo $line
done

Forever

while true; do
  $commands_here
done

CMD .bat

TODO: this

Loop Type	Code Examples
For
While
Break
Continue

Loops

In the decision making chapter, we have seen statements which have been executed one after the other in a sequential manner. Additionally, implementations can also be done in Batch Script to alter the flow of control in a program's logic. They are then classified into flow of control statements.

While Statement Implementation

There is no direct while statement available in Batch Scripting but we can do an implementation of this loop very easily by using the if statement and labels.

The first part of the while implementation is to set the counters which will be used to control the evaluation of the 'if' condition. We then define our label which will be used to embody the entire code for the while loop implementation. The 'if' condition evaluates an expression. If the expression evaluates to true, the code block is executed. If the condition evaluates to false then the loop is exited. When the code block is executed, it will return back to the label statement for execution again.

Syntax

Set counters
:label
If (expression) (
   Do_something
   Increment counter
   Go back to :label
)

• The entire code for the while implementation is placed inside of a label.

• The counter variables must be set or initialized before the while loop implementation starts.

• The expression for the while condition is done using the 'if' statement. If the expression evaluates to true then the relevant code inside the 'if' loop is executed.

• A counter needs to be properly incremented inside of 'if' statement so that the while implementation can terminate at some point in time.

• Finally, we will go back to our label so that we can evaluate our 'if' statement again.

Following is an example of a while loop statement.

Example

@echo off
SET /A "index = 1"
SET /A "count = 5"
:while
if %index% leq %count% (
   echo The value of index is %index%
   SET /A "index = index + 1"
   goto :while
)

In the above example, we are first initializing the value of an index integer variable to 1. Then our condition in the 'if' loop is that we are evaluating the condition of the expression to be that index should it be less than the value of the count variable. Till the value of index is less than 5, we will print the value of index and then increment the value of index.

For Statement - List Implementations

The "FOR" construct offers looping capabilities for batch files. Following is the common construct of the 'for' statement for working with a list of values.

Syntax

FOR %%variable IN list DO do_something

The classic 'for' statement consists of the following parts −

• Variable declaration – This step is executed only once for the entire loop and used to declare any variables which will be used within the loop. In Batch Script, the variable declaration is done with the %% at the beginning of the variable name.

• List – This will be the list of values for which the 'for' statement should be executed.

• The do_something code block is what needs to be executed for each iteration for the list of values.

Following is an example of how the 'goto' statement can be used.

Example

@echo off 
FOR %%F IN (1 2 3 4 5) DO echo %%F

The key thing to note about the above program is −

• The variable declaration is done with the %% sign at the beginning of the variable name.

• The list of values is defined after the IN clause.

• The do_something code is defined after the echo command. Thus for each value in the list, the echo command will be executed.

Looping through Ranges

The 'for' statement also has the ability to move through a range of values. Following is the general form of the statement.

Syntax

FOR /L %%variable IN (lowerlimit,Increment,Upperlimit) DO do_something

Where

• The /L switch is used to denote that the loop is used for iterating through ranges.

• Variable declaration – This step is executed only once for the entire loop and used to declare any variables which will be used within the loop. In Batch Script, the variable declaration is done with the %% at the beginning of the variable name.

• The IN list contains of 3 values. The lowerlimit, the increment, and the upperlimit. So, the loop would start with the lowerlimit and move to the upperlimit value, iterating each time by the Increment value.

• The do_something code block is what needs to be executed for each iteration.

Following is an example of how the looping through ranges can be carried out.

Example

@ECHO OFF 
FOR /L %%X IN (0,1,5) DO ECHO %%X

Classic for Loop Implementation

Following is the classic 'for' statement which is available in most programming languages.

Typical 'for' loop Syntax

for(variable declaration;expression;Increment) {
   statement #1
   statement #2
   …
}

The Batch Script language does not have a direct 'for' statement which is similar to the above syntax, but one can still do an implementation of the classic 'for' loop statement using if statements and labels.

Let's look at the general syntax implementation of the classic for loop in batch scripting.

Set counter
:label

If (expression) exit loop
Do_something
Increment counter
Go back to :label

• The entire code for the 'for' implementation is placed inside of a label.

• The counters variables must be set or initialized before the 'for' loop implementation starts.

• The expression for the 'for' loop is done using the 'if' statement. If the expression evaluates to be true then an exit is executed to come out of the loop.

• A counter needs to be properly incremented inside of the 'if' statement so that the 'for' implementation can continue if the expression evaluation is false.

• Finally, we will go back to our label so that we can evaluate our 'if' statement again.

Following is an example of how to carry out the implementation of the classic 'for' loop statement.

Example

@echo off 
SET /A i = 1 
:loop 

IF %i%==5 GOTO END 
echo The value of i is %i% 
SET /a i=%i%+1 
GOTO :LOOP 
:END

Looping through Command Line Arguments

The 'for' statement can also be used for checking command line arguments. The following example shows how the 'for' statement can be used to loop through the command line arguments.

Example

@ECHO OFF 
:Loop 

IF "%1"=="" GOTO completed 
FOR %%F IN (%1) DO echo %%F 
SHIFT 
GOTO Loop 
:completed

Output

Let's assume that our above code is stored in a file called Test.bat. The above command will produce the following output if the batch file passes the command line arguments of 1,2 and 3 as Test.bat 1 2 3.

1 
2 
3

Break Statement Implementation

The break statement is used to alter the flow of control inside loops within any programming language. The break statement is normally used in looping constructs and is used to cause immediate termination of the innermost enclosing loop.

The break statement is used to alter the flow of control inside loops within any programming language. The break statement is normally used in looping constructs and is used to cause immediate termination of the innermost enclosing loop.

The Batch Script language does not have a direct 'for' statement which does a break but this can be implemented by using labels. The following example shows the diagrammatic explanation of the break statement implementation in Batch Script.

Example

@echo off 
SET /A "index=1" 
SET /A "count=5" 
:while 
if %index% leq %count% ( 
   if %index%==2 goto :Increment 
      echo The value of index is %index% 
:Increment 
   SET /A "index=index + 1" 
   goto :while 
)

The key thing to note about the above implementation is the involvement of two 'if' conditions. The second 'if' condition is used to control when the break is implemented. If the second 'if' condition is evaluated to be true, then the code block is not executed and the counter is directly implemented.

Following is an example of how to carry out the implementation of the break statement.

The key thing to note about the above script is the addition of a label called :Increment. When the value of index reaches 2, we want to skip the statement which echoes its value to the command prompt and directly just increment the value of index.

Functions

Python

Functions	Code Examples
Definition	def hello_function(): print("Hello from my function!") <code></code> hello_function()
Arguments	def my_name(fname, lname): print("My name is " + fname + " " + lname) <code></code> my_function("Wolf", "Zweiler")
Variable Arguments	def second_arg(*children): print("The youngest child is " + children[1]) <code></code> my_function("Sarah", "Emily", "Tom")
Named Arguments	def young_child(child3, child2, child1): print("The youngest child is " + child3) <code></code> my_function(child1 = "Sarah", child2 = "Emily", child3 = "Tom")
Default Values	def my_country(country = "Wakanda"): print("I am from " + country) <code></code> my_country()
Return Values	def five_times(x): return 5 * x

PowerShell

Functions	Code Examples
Definition	function hello_function() { Write-Host "Hello from my function!" } hello_function
Arguments	function my_name($fname, $lname) { Write-Host "My name is $fname $lname" } my-function -fname "Wolf" -lname "Zweiler"
Variable Arguments	function second_arg() { Write-Host "The youngest child is $($args[1])" } my-function "Sarah" "Emily" "Tom"
Named Arguments	function young_child($child3, $child2, $child1) { Write-Host "The youngest child is $child3" } my-function -child1 "Sarah" -child2 "Emily" -child3 "Tom"
Default Values	function my_country { param( $country = "Wakanda" ) <code></code> Write-Host "I am from $country" } my_country
Return Values	function five_times($x) { 5 * $x }

Bash

Functions	Code Examples
Definition	myfunc() { echo "Hello"; }
Arguments	myfunc() { echo "Hello $1"; }; myfunc World
Variable Arguments	myfunc() { for arg in "$@"; do echo $arg; done; }; myfunc a b c
Named Arguments	# Not natively supported in Bash
Default Values	myfunc() { local var=${1:-default}; echo $var; }; myfunc
Return Values	myfunc() { return 42; }; myfunc; echo $?

Arguments

Referencing arguments in a bash script:

$#	Number of arguments
$*	All arguments
$@	All arguments, starting from first
$1	First argument, $2 second, etc.
$_	Last argument of the previous command

Returning values

myfunc() {
    local myresult='some value'
    echo $myresult
}

result="$(myfunc)"

Defining Functions

myfunc() {
    echo "hello $1"
}

# Same as above (alternate syntax)
function myfunc() {
    echo "hello $1"
}

myfunc "John"

CMD .bat

Basic functions can be defined in batch scripts, hoever they do not accept arguments nor do they have the ability to return values in the programming sense.

Functions	Code Examples
Definition	:myfunc echo Hello & goto :eof
Arguments	REM Not natively supported in CMD
Variable Arguments	REM Not natively supported in CMD
Named Arguments	REM Not natively supported in CMD
Default Values	REM Not natively supported in CMD
Return Values	REM Not natively supported in CMD

Classes

Python

Activity	Code Examples
Class Definition	class MyClass: x = 5
Object Creation	MyClass()
Using Class Constructors	class Person: def init(self, name, age): self.name = name self.age = age <code></code> p1 = Person("Bob", 42)
Defining and using Methods	class Person: def init(self, name, age): self.name = name self.age = age <code></code> def myfunc(self): print("Hello my name is " + self.name) <code></code> p1 = Person("Bob", 42) p1.myfunc()

PowerShell

Activity	Code Examples
Class Definition	class MyClass { $x = 5 }
Object Creation	[MyClass]::new()
Using Class Constructors	class Person { Person($Name, $Age) { $this.Name = $Name $this.Age = $Age } <code></code> $Name = '' $Age = 0 } [Person]::new('Bob', 42)
Defining and using Methods	class Person { Person($Name, $Age) { $this.Name = $Name $this.Age = $Age } <code></code> [string]myfunc() { return "Hello my name is $($this.Name)" } <code></code> $Name = '' $Age = 0 } <code></code> [Person]::new('Bob', 42)

Bash

TODO:

Activity	Code Examples
Class Definition
Object Creation
Using Class Constructors
Defining and using Methods

CMD .bat

TODO:

Activity	Code Examples
Class Definition
Object Creation
Using Class Constructors
Defining and using Methods

Comments

Python

Comment Type	Code Examples
Single line	# Hello, world!
Multiline	""" Hello, world! """

PowerShell

Comment Type	Code Examples
Single line	# Hello, world!
Multiline	<# Hello, world! #>

Bash

Comment Type	Code Examples
Single line	# Single line comment
Multiline	See example below

Comments

# Single line comment

: '
This is a
multi line
comment
'

CMD .bat

Comment Type	Code Examples
Single line	Rem This is a comment
Multiline	Not implemented in batch scripts`

Comments Using the Rem Statement

There are two ways to create comments in Batch Script; one is via the Rem command. Any text which follows the Rem statement will be treated as comments and will not be executed. Following is the general syntax of this statement.

Syntax

Rem This is a comment

Example

The following example shows a simple way the Rem command can be used to explain the function of the code below it.

@echo off 
Rem This program just displays Hello World 
set message=Hello World 
echo %message%

Output

The above command produces the following output. You will notice that the line with the Rem statement will not be executed.

Hello World

Notes:

1. REM command must be followed by a space or tab character.

2. You may include any symbol in the comments without any restriction.

3. If ECHO is in ON state, the comment is displayed on the command prompt. Otherwise, it is ignored.

4. If you want ECHO to be ON and you don't want to display the comment line, use an at sign @ before REM command.

5. If you have too many lines of Rem, it could slow down the code, because in the end each line of code in the batch file still needs to be executed.

Comments Using the :: Statement

The other way to create comments in Batch Script is via the :: command. Any text which follows the :: statement will be treated as comments and will not be executed. Following is the general syntax of this statement.

Syntax

:: This is a comment

Example

The comment marker :: is used exactly the same as Rem.

@echo off 
:: This program just displays Hello World 
set message = Hello World 
echo %message%

Trick for Multiple Line Comments

Use a GOTO statement to simulate a multiline comment by bypassing the lines within the block.

GOTO MultiLineComment
This line is comment.
And so is this line.
And this one...
:MultiLineComment

Data Types

Python

Action	Code Examples
Get Object's Type	var = 1 type(var)

PowerShell

Action	Code Examples
Get Object's Type	$var = 1 $var

Bash

Bash does not have the concept of typed variables, though attributes can be defined using the declare command. See the link below for more information:

https://stackoverflow.com/questions/29840525/get-variable-type-in-bash

CMD .bat

TODO: this

Action	Code Examples
Get Object's Type

Dictionaries

Python

Activity	Code Examples
Defining	thisdict = { "brand": "Ford", "model": "Mustang", "year": 1964 } print(thisdict)
Accessing Elements	thisdict = { "brand": "Ford", "model": "Mustang", "year": 1964 } thisdict['brand']
Updating Elements	thisdict = { "brand": "Ford", "model": "Mustang", "year": 1964 } thisdict['brand'] = 'Chevy'
Enumerating Keys	thisdict = { "brand": "Ford", "model": "Mustang", "year": 1964 } for x in thisdict: print(x)
Enumerating Values	thisdict = { "brand": "Ford", "model": "Mustang", "year": 1964 } for x in thisdict.values(): print(x)
Check if key exists	thisdict = { "brand": "Ford", "model": "Mustang", "year": 1964 } if "model" in thisdict: print("Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict dictionary")
Adding items	thisdict = { "brand": "Ford", "model": "Mustang", "year": 1964 } thisdict["color"] = "red"

PowerShell

Activity	Code Examples
Defining	$thisdict = @{ brand = "Ford" model = "Mustang" year = 1964 }
Accessing Elements	$thisdict = @{ brand = "Ford" model = "Mustang" year = 1964 } $thisdict.brand <code></code> or <code></code> $thisdict['brand']
Updating Elements	$thisdict = @{ brand = "Ford" model = "Mustang" year = 1964 } $thisdict.brand = 'Chevy'
Enumerating Keys	$thisdict = @{ brand = "Ford" model = "Mustang" year = 1964 } $thisdict.Keys
Enumerating Values	$thisdict = @{ brand = "Ford" model = "Mustang" year = 1964 } $thisdict.Values
Check if key exists	$thisdict = @{ brand = "Ford" model = "Mustang" year = 1964 } if ($thisdict.ContainsKey("model")) { Write-Host "Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict dictionary" }
Adding items	$thisdict = @{ brand = "Ford" model = "Mustang" year = 1964 } $thisdict.color = 'red'

Bash

TODO: this

Activity	Code Examples
Defining
Accessing Elements
Updating Elements
Enumerating Keys
Enumerating Values
Check if key exists
Adding items

Defining a dictionary

declare -A sounds

sounds[dog]="bark"
sounds[cow]="moo"
sounds[bird]="tweet"
sounds[wolf]="howl"

Declares sound as a Dictionary object (aka associative array).

Working with dictionaries

echo ${sounds[dog]} # Dog's sound
echo ${sounds[@]}   # All values
echo ${!sounds[@]}  # All keys
echo ${#sounds[@]}  # Number of elements
unset sounds[dog]   # Delete dog

Iteration

Iterate over values

for val in "${sounds[@]}"; do
  echo $val
done

Iterate over keys

for key in "${!sounds[@]}"; do
  echo $key
done

CMD .bat

TODO: this

Activity	Code Examples
Defining
Accessing Elements
Updating Elements
Enumerating Keys
Enumerating Values
Check if key exists
Adding items

Creating Structures in Arrays

Structures can also be implemented in batch files using a little bit of an extra coding for implementation. The following example shows how this can be achieved.

Example

@echo off 
set len = 3 
set obj[0].Name = Joe 
set obj[0].ID = 1 
set obj[1].Name = Mark 
set obj[1].ID = 2 
set obj[2].Name = Mohan 
set obj[2].ID = 3 
set i = 0 
:loop 

if %i% equ %len% goto :eof 
set cur.Name= 
set cur.ID=

for /f "usebackq delims==.tokens=1-3" %%j in (`set obj[%i%]`) do ( 
   set cur.%%k=%%l 
) 
echo Name = %cur.Name% 
echo Value = %cur.ID% 
set /a i = %i%+1 
goto loop

The following key things need to be noted about the above code:

• Each variable defined using the set command has 2 values associated with each index of the array.

• The variable i is set to 0 so that we can loop through the structure will the length of the array which is 3.

• We always check for the condition on whether the value of i is equal to the value of len and if not, we loop through the code.

• We are able to access each element of the structure using the obj\[%i%] notation.

Output

The above command produces the following output.

Name = Joe 
Value = 1 
Name = Mark 
Value = 2 
Name = Mohan 
Value = 3

Lambdas

Python

Lambda	Code Examples
Lambda	x = lambda a : a + 10 print(x(5))

PowerShell

Lambda	Code Examples
Lambda	$x = { param($a) $a + 10 } & $x 5

Bash

This is implemented by creating a basic inline function in bash.

Lambda	Code Examples
Lambda	lambda() { echo $(($1 + 10)); }; lambda 5

CMD .bat

Batch scripting does not natively support lambda functions.

Lambda	Code Examples
Lambda	REM Not natively supported in CMD

Math Operators

TODO: Add other operator types

Python

Operator	Code Examples
Addition	var = 1 + 1
Subtraction	var = 1 - 1
Multiplication	var = 1 * 1
Division	var = 1 / 1
Modulus	var = 1 % 1
Floor	var = 10 // 3
Exponent	var = 10 ** 3

PowerShell

Operator	Code Examples
Addition	$var = 1 + 1
Subtraction	$var = 1 - 1
Multiplication	$var = 1 * 1
Division	$var = 1 / 1
Modulus	$var = 1 % 1
Floor	$var = [Math]::Floor(10 / 3)
Exponent	$var = [Math]::Pow(10, 3)

Bash

Operator	Code Examples
Addition	echo $((1 + 1))
Subtraction	echo $((1 - 1))
Multiplication	echo $((1 * 1))
Division	echo $((1 / 1))
Modulus	echo $((1 % 1))
Floor	echo $((10 / 3))
Exponent	echo $((10 ** 3))

CMD .bat

An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or logical manipulations.

In batch scripting, the following types of operators are possible:

• Arithmetic operators

• Relational operators

• Logical operators

• Assignment operators

• Bitwise operators

Arithmetic Operators

Batch script language supports the normal Arithmetic operators as any language. Following are the Arithmetic operators available.

Show Example

Operator	Description	Example
+	Addition of two operands	1 + 2 will give 3
−	Subtracts second operand from the first	2 − 1 will give 1
*	Multiplication of both operands	2 * 2 will give 4
/	Division of the numerator by the denominator	3 / 2 will give 1.5
%	Modulus operator and remainder of after an integer/float division	3 % 2 will give 1

Batch scripts do not natively support Floors or Exponents.

Relational Operators

Relational operators allow of the comparison of objects. Below are the relational operators available.

Show Example

Operator	Description	Example
EQU	Tests the equality between two objects	2 EQU 2 will give true
NEQ	Tests the difference between two objects	3 NEQ 2 will give true
LSS	Checks to see if the left object is less than the right operand	2 LSS 3 will give true
LEQ	Checks to see if the left object is less than or equal to the right operand	2 LEQ 3 will give true
GTR	Checks to see if the left object is greater than the right operand	3 GTR 2 will give true
GEQ	Checks to see if the left object is greater than or equal to the right operand	3 GEQ 2 will give true

Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to evaluate Boolean expressions. Following are the logical operators available.

The batch language is equipped with a full set of Boolean logic operators like AND, OR, XOR, but only for binary numbers. Neither are there any values for TRUE or FALSE. The only logical operator available for conditions is the NOT operator.

Show Example

Operator	Description
AND	This is the logical “and” operator
OR	This is the logical “or” operator
NOT	This is the logical “not” operator

Assignment Operators

Batch Script language also provides assignment operators. Following are the assignment operators available.

Show Example

Operator	Description	Example
+=	This adds right operand to the left operand and assigns the result to left operand	Set /A a = 5 a += 3 Output will be 8
-=	This subtracts the right operand from the left operand and assigns the result to the left operand	Set /A a = 5 a -= 3 Output will be 2
*=	This multiplies the right operand with the left operand and assigns the result to the left operand	Set /A a = 5 a *= 3 Output will be 15
/=	This divides the left operand with the right operand and assigns the result to the left operand	Set /A a = 6 a/ = 3 Output will be 2
%=	This takes modulus using two operands and assigns the result to the left operand	Set /A a = 5 a% = 3 Output will be 2

Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operators are also possible in batch script. Following are the operators available.

Show Example

Operator	Description
&	This is the bitwise “and” operator
|	This is the bitwise “or” operator
^	This is the bitwise “xor” or Exclusive or operator

Following is the truth table showcasing these operators.

p	q	p & q	p | q	p ^ q
0	0	0	0	0
0	1	0	1	1
1	1	1	1	0
1	0	0	1	1

Error Handling

Python

Error Handling	Code Examples
Try/Except	try: print(x) except: print("An exception occurred")
Else	try: print("Hello") except: print("Something went wrong") else: print("Nothing went wrong")
Finally	try: f = open("file.txt") f.write("Lorum Ipsum") except: print("Something went wrong when writing to the file") finally: f.close()
Raise	x = -1 if x < 0: raise Exception("Sorry, no numbers below zero")

PowerShell

Error Handling	Code Examples
Try/Catch	try { Write-Host $x } catch { Write-Host "An exception ocurred" }

Bash

TODO: this

Error Handling	Code Examples
Try/Catch

Trap errors

trap 'echo Error at about $LINENO' ERR

or

traperr() {
  echo "ERROR: ${BASH_SOURCE[1]} at about ${BASH_LINENO[0]}"
}

set -o errtrace
trap traperr ERR

Raising errors

myfunc() {
  return 1
}

if myfunc; then
  echo "success"
else
  echo "failure"
fi

CMD .bat

TODO: this

Error Handling	Code Examples
Try/Catch

Shell Command Execution

Python

PowerShell

To execute regular Windows shell commands (from cmd.exe) in PowerShell, simply type the command the same way you would in the Windows command shell. Some commands may not work in the same way, and some may need the full filename (example: to se a directory listing in cmd.exe dir is the command. To use this in PowerShell you would need to specify dir.exe.

IEX (Invoke-Expression)

Bash

Shell execution

pwd
echo "I'm in $(pwd)"
echo "I'm in `pwd`"

CMD .bat

Output Redirection

Python

PowerShell

Redirect Standard Error to the nether

2>null

Many cmdlets also have an ErrorAction property

-ErrorAction Silent

Bash

Redirect Standard Error to the nether

2>/dev/null

CMD .bat

There are three universal “files” for keyboard input, printing text on the screen and printing errors on the screen. The “Standard In” file, known as stdin, contains the input to the program/script. The “Standard Out” file, known as stdout, is used to write output for display on the screen. Finally, the “Standard Err” file, known as stderr, contains any error messages for display on the screen.

Each of these three standard files, otherwise known as the standard streams, are referenced using the numbers 0, 1, and 2. Stdin is file 0, stdout is file 1, and stderr is file 2.

Redirecting Output (Stdout and Stderr)

One common practice in batch files is sending the output of a program to a log file. The > operator sends, or redirects, stdout or stderr to another file. The following example shows how this can be done.

Dir C:\ > list.txt

In the above example, the stdout of the command Dir C: is redirected to the file list.txt.

If you append the number 2 to the redirection filter, then it would redirect the stderr to the file lists.txt.

Dir C:\ 2> list.txt

One can even combine the stdout and stderr streams using the file number and the '&' prefix. Following is an example.

DIR C:\ > lists.txt 2>&1

Suppressing Program Output

The pseudo file NUL is used to discard any output from a program. The following example shows that the output of the command DIR is discarded by sending the output to NUL.

Dir C:\ > NUL

Stdin

To work with the Stdin, you have to use a workaround to achieve this. This can be done by redirecting the command prompt's own stdin, called CON.

The following example shows how you can redirect the output to a file called lists.txt. After you execute the below command, the command prompt will take all the input entered by user till it gets an EOF character. Later, it sends all the input to the file lists.txt.

TYPE CON > lists.txt

HERE docs

In scripting, a heredoc (here document) is a way to feed a block of text into a command or script. It's often used to generate multi-line output or pass structured text to commands like cat, echo, or tee. Some benefits of using HERE docs:

• Simplifies Multi-Line Input – Instead of writing multiple commands, you can provide large text blocks neatly to a single input.

• Improves Readability – Using heredocs makes scripts easier to read and maintain, especially when handling structured data.

• Supports Variable Expansion – In most languages, heredocs allow variables to be expanded dynamically.

Python

Python doesn't have a direct heredoc equivalent, but triple-quoted strings (""" or ''') serve a similar purpose.

text = """This is a multi-line string.
It works like a heredoc."""
print(text)

PowerShell

PowerShell uses here-strings, which are enclosed in @" and "@, which support expansion and variables (or @' and '@ for literal strings).

$text = @"
This is a PowerShell here-string.
It spans multiple lines.
"@
Write-Output $text

Note

Here-strings in PowerShell are useful for handling multi-line text, but they come with some limitations:

• Must Start on a New Line – The opening @" or @' must be on its own line, or PowerShell will throw an error.

• No Indentation for Closing Marker – The closing "@ or '@ must start at the very beginning of a line, which can make formatting tricky.

• Limited Formatting Control – Unlike heredocs in Bash, PowerShell here-strings don’t support indentation or trimming whitespace easily.

Bash

Heredoc

Heredocs in Bash scripting offer several additional benefits, making them a powerful tool for handling multi-line text inputs efficiently:

• Avoids Escape Characters – Unlike inline strings, heredocs allow you to include quotes and special characters without excessive escaping.

• Supports Variable Expansion – Unless explicitly prevented with <<'EOF', heredocs expand variables, making dynamic content generation easier.

cat <<HERE
hello
world
HERE

Everything between <<EOF and EOF is treated as input for cat, allowing the script to process multi-line text without needing individual echo statements. EOF can be any unique string of ASCII characters.

CMD .bat

Batch scripting lacks a true heredoc feature, but workarounds exist using echo and parentheses.

(
echo This is a simulated heredoc.
echo Batch scripting doesn't support heredocs natively.
) > output.txt

Package Management

Python

Activity	Code Examples
Install	pip install <package-name>
Import	import <package-name>
List	pip list
Update	pip install --upgrade <package-name>
Uninstall	pip uninstall <package-name>
Search	pip search <package-name> (Deprecated, use pip install <package-name> to check availability)
Show Details	pip show <package-name>
Freeze	pip freeze (Lists installed packages in a format suitable for requirements.txt)

You can also check out this guide for more details!

PowerShell

Activity	Code Examples
Install	Install-Package <package-name> - PowerShell
Import	Import-Module <module-name>
List	Get-Package - PowerShell
Update	Update-Package <package-name>
Uninstall	Uninstall-Package <package-name>
Search	Find-Package <package-name>
Show Details	Get-Package -Name <package-name>

PowerShell uses PackageManagement to handle software packages, and it supports multiple providers like NuGet and Chocolatey.

Winget

Winget package management

Winget is used for managing applications on Windows, similar to package managers on Linux and macOS.

Activity	Code Examples
Install	winget install <package-name>
List	winget list
Update	winget upgrade <package-name>
Update All	winget upgrade --all
Uninstall	winget uninstall <package-name>
Search	winget search <package-name>
Show Details	winget show <package-name>

You can find more details on Winget commands here.

Chocolatey

Chocolatey package management

Chocolatey is a powerful package manager for Windows, making software installation and updates much more efficient.

Activity	Code Examples
Install	choco install <package-name>
List	choco list --local-only
Update	choco upgrade <package-name>
Update All	choco upgrade all
Uninstall	choco uninstall <package-name>
Search	choco search <package-name>
Show Details	choco info <package-name>
Check for Outdated Packages	choco outdated

You can find more details on Chocolatey commands here.

Bash

Activity	Code Examples
Install	sudo apt install <package-name> (Debian/Ubuntu) sudo dnf install <package-name> (Fedora/RHEL)
Import	Not applicable in Bash package management (Packages are installed, not imported)
List	apt list --installed (Debian/Ubuntu) dnf list installed (Fedora/RHEL)
Update	sudo apt update (Debian/Ubuntu) sudo dnf update (Fedora/RHEL)
Upgrade	sudo apt upgrade (Debian/Ubuntu) sudo dnf upgrade (Fedora/RHEL)
Remove	sudo apt remove <package-name> (Debian/Ubuntu) sudo dnf remove <package-name> (Fedora/RHEL)
Search	apt search <package-name> (Debian/Ubuntu) dnf search <package-name> (Fedora/RHEL)
Clean Cache	sudo apt clean (Debian/Ubuntu) sudo dnf clean all (Fedora/RHEL)

CMD .bat

Windows lacks built-in package management, but has a somewhat similar feature using DISM (Deployment Image Servicing and Management) for managing additional features. These features can also be installed/removed using PowerShell commands as well.

Activity	Code Examples
Install Feature	DISM /Online /Enable-Feature /FeatureName:<feature-name>
Remove Feature	DISM /Online /Disable-Feature /FeatureName:<feature-name>
List Installed Features	DISM /Online /Get-Features
Check Feature Status	DISM /Online /Get-FeatureInfo /FeatureName:<feature-name>
Install Feature via PowerShell	Enable-WindowsOptionalFeature -Online -FeatureName <feature-name>
Remove Feature via PowerShell	Disable-WindowsOptionalFeature -Online -FeatureName <feature-name>

You can find more details on managing Windows features here.

References

• https://devhints.io/bash

• https://wiki.bash-hackers.org/syntax/expansion/cmdsubst

• https://www.tutorialspoint.com/batch_script/batch_script_syntax.htm

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